Chaucer's ability to characterize people from all walks of life in explicit detail, as is so wonderfully displayed in The Canterbury Tales, is just one factor that allowed him to be known as one of history's finest literary artists. At the end of a career that would be considered by most artists as an extremely successful one, what could have caused Chaucer to apologize for any of the works which defined literary success? In "Chaucer's Retraction," which appears at the end of The Canterbury Tales (Norton 311), Chaucer not only apologizes for several of his secular works, he also goes so far as to revoke them, and ask for forgiveness for such works which "tended toward sin" (313), as he puts it. Such an extreme action seems to be somewhat irrational. Some believe that Chaucer, nearing the end of his earthly life, was preparing himself for God's judgment in the afterlife. If, by means of his writings, he was guilty of some grave sin, which would keep him from the eternal bliss of heaven, such a retraction might be considered justifiable. Furthermore, the concept of being tormented in the depths of hell for all eternity could easily persuade any person, especially on his deathbed, to renounce all past actions, good or bad. Maybe it is better to be safe than to be sorry, forever. While it is impossible to truly discern Chaucer's reasoning, assuming him to be the actual author of this passage, a closer examination of the "offending" text, as well as a look at some of the social and religious influences of the time period, might give us a clue as to why such a gifted poet would take this position.
The dominant theme of the pilgrimage in The Canterbury Tales illustrates one obvious religious influence on the poem. The pilgrimage began as a totally religious experience. During this experience, the pilgrims went on long, difficult journeys in order to walk on sacred ground, or to get close to holy relics of saints. It was believed, and still is by some, that doing so brought one closer to God. The journey itself was all about penance; the more difficult the journey, the better the chance of forgiveness of past sins, as Peter Speed points out in Those Who Prayed, an Anthology of Medieval Sources (Speed 178). Christian belief is largely based on the assumption that all humans are born into original sin, and only through repentance for even this inherited "original sin" are they deemed worthy of an everlasting heavenly afterlife. Given this belief, Chaucer may have been justified in asking for forgiveness for any sins he may have inadvertently committed. However, it does not seem to fully justify a complete retraction of works, unless those works displayed some grave sin for which repentance was necessary.
It is now necessary to consider what might constitute a grave sin. Certainly any action contrary to Christian teaching of the time would constitute sin. Heresy was taken very seriously by the Church in those days. Early in the eleventh century, the Fourth Lateran Council described procedures for dealing with heresy:
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We excommunicate and anathematize [pronounce as a thing devoted to evil] every heresy that contradicts this holy, orthodox, catholic faith, and condemn all heretics, no matter what they may call themselves ... Those who are accused of heresy, must prove their innocence by purgation, and, until then, be subject to anathema and avoided by everyone, so that if they are still under excommunication after a year, they shall be condemned as heretics forthwith (qtd. in Speed 206). |
Could Chaucer be accused of such a sin? Consider his characters. It is obvious that some of them have ideas that could be perceived to be contradictory to Christian teaching. For instance, the Wife of Bath vehemently attacks the religious concept that a woman should marry only once:
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But me was told, certain, nat longe agoon is, / That sith that Crist ne wente nevere but ones / To wedding in the Cane of Galilee, / That by the same ensample taughte he me / That I ne sholde wedded be but ones / ... Eek wel I woot he saide that myn housbonde / Sholde lete fader and moder and take to me, / But of no nobre mencion made he- / Of bigamye or of octogamye: / Why sholde men thane speke of it vilainye? (9 - 34). |
How many of her ideas originate from Chaucer's own thoughts and ideas? Heresy was most definitely considered a grave sin by the Church, and although Chaucer does not explicitly condone the Wife of Bath's attitude, he does not condemn it either.
Chaucer's non-judgmental portrayal of the characters in The Canterbury Tales, might very well border on sin. What kind of Christian example does he set for his audience? Most readers would probably agree that he set an extraordinary example for Christians to follow, but what did he think? His description of the Parson suggests that he was very much aware of the importance of setting the proper example for others:
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He was to sinful men nought despitous, / Ne of his speeche daungerous ne digne, / But in his teching discreet and benigne, / To drawen fold to hevene by fairnesse / By good ensample (518 - 522) |
Chaucer's characters, however, do not all set a good Christian example. If this is in any way a reflection of Chaucer, himself, could it be considered sinful on his part? Could it likewise be considered sinful not to point out those actions that are inappropriate for a true Christian? The skewed belief of the Friar, that one could buy penance with money rather than with "weeping and prayers," illustrates one form of inappropriate behavior, especially for one professing to be a man of the Church. Chaucer exposes the Friar's love of money, saying: "It is nat honeste, it may nought avaunce, / For to delen with no swich poraile, / But al with riche, and sellers of vitaile; / And over al ther as profit sholde arise" (246 - 249). Given the Christian teaching that "money is the root of all evil," profit clearly should not be the driving force for any Christian.
The social acceptance of the concept of "courtly love" also plays a role in some of the pilgrims' tales. In the twelfth century, courtly love was portrayed as being largely adulterous, rather than being based on the Christian marital arrangement. "The Miller's Tale," concerning one such adulterous affair, makes light of behavior that is clearly contradictory to religious belief of the time. The fact that such behavior may have been an accepted part of social life does not make it any less of a sin.
Much of the behavior within The Canterbury Tales goes contrary to Christian teaching and could thus be considered sinful. It may be that Chaucer believed that his non-judgmental portrayal of such sinful behavior made him guilty. It may also be his belief that, as the author of the poem, the behavior displayed by the characters could only have originated from his own ideas, which caused a need for repentance on his part. It is also a possibility that Chaucer was just being extremely careful so as to avoid the tortures of hell, such as are described in a vision of a twelfth century monk:
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The kinds of punishment I saw were endless. Some were roasted before fire; others were fried in pans; red hot nails were driven into some to their bones; others were tourtured with a horrid stench in baths of pitch and sulphur mixed with molten lead, brass and other kinds of metal; immense worms with poisonous teeth gnawed at some; others were fastened on by one on stakes with fiery thorns. The torturers tore them with their nails, flogged them with dreadful scourges, and lacerated them in dreadful agonies [The Monk of Evesham's Vision, 1197] (qtd. in Speed 4). |
When facing the end of one's life, the notion of spending all eternity in such a place would surely make even the most avid non-believer think twice. A true believer in Christianity might very well think that it is much better to be safe, than to be sorry forever.
"Chaucer's Retraction." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Seventh Edition. Volume1. Ed. M.H. Abrams. New York: W.W.Norton and Company, Inc., 2000.
Speed, Peter, ed. Those Who Prayed, An Anthology of Medieval Sources. New York: Italica Press, 1997.
Background Image
Original Image: "The Lament." Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones (1833-1898) Artist.